Applying Basic Conventions

Conventions include punctuation, usage, mechanics, and sentence rules. The following pages outline the most important conventions of English.

Punctuation Rules

Use correct end punctuation. End statements and mild commands with a period. End direct questions with a question mark. Use exclamation points sparingly, one at a time.	I arrived early . Why was everyone else late ? I’m sick of it!
Use commas after introductory words. Set off a group of four or more introductory words.	Before the sun rose , we ate breakfast.
Use commas to separate items in a series. Include a comma before the last and or or .	We couldn’t decide whether to have beans , rice , or corn.
Place a comma between equal adjectives. Two adjectives modify a noun equally if you can change their order and they still make sense.	I like spicy , hot chili. (“I like hot , spicy chili” works.)
Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction to form compound sentences. You can join two sentences (independent clauses) with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction ( and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet ).	The pillow is hypoallergenic , and the sheets are freshly washed.
Use a semicolon to form compound sentences. You can join two closely related sentences (independent clauses) with a semicolon.	The pillow is hypoallergenic ; the sheets are freshly washed.
Place a colon before an example or list. Write a complete sentence before the colons.	She needs one thing : respect. I need three things : lunch, a shower, and a nap.
Use an apostrophe to show possession. Add ’s to most words, and an apostrophe to plurals ending in s . (The owner precedes the apostrophe.)	Friend ’ s report (owned by one) Friends ’ report (owned by more than one)
Use quotation marks around a speaker’s exact words. Periods or commas at the end of a quotation appear inside the quotation marks; colons or semicolons appear outside the quotation marks; question marks/exclamation points appear inside the marks if they belong to the quotation, outside if they end the sentence.	When did Lincoln say that the Civil War might continue “ until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword ” ?
Set off titles of short works with quotation marks; use italics (underlining) for long works. Short works are songs, short stories, articles, etc. Long works are albums, books, newspapers, etc.	The song “ Fly by Night ” is on the album Fly by Night .

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Usage Rules

Accept, except: The verb accept means “receive.” The preposition except means “other than”; the conjunction, “unless”; and the verb, “leave out.”	I won’t accept any answer except yes.
Affect, effect: Affect is a verb that means “influence.” As a noun, effect means “result”; as a verb, effect means “bring about.”	The situation doesn’t affect me. I’ve realized no negative effects , so why should I effect a change?
Among, between: Among often refers to groups of more than two; between often refers to only two.	Among the possible candidates, I’ll choose between these two.
Amount, number: Amount refers to things in bulk or mass; number refers to separate things that can be counted.	A number of glasses held the same amount of water.
Bad, badly: Bad is an adjective, used before a noun or after a linking verb; badly is an adverb.	The report is bad (bad report); I look bad (bad appearance); I play badly (bad at playing).
Choose, chose: Choose means “select”; chose is the past tense of choose .	I choose today the same thing I chose yesterday.
Farther, further: Farther refers to physical distance; further refers to a greater extent or degree.	Further reflection tells us that we should walk farther .
Fewer, less: Fewer refers to separate items that can be counted; less refers to a quantity that can be measured but not counted.	I like using the “10 items or fewer ” lane. It takes less time than the others.
Good, well: Good is an adjective, never an adverb. Well is an adjective that means “healthy,” but it is most often used as an adverb.	Carl is a good athlete. He eats well (adverb) in order to stay well (adjective).
Hole, whole: Hole refers to an opening or gap; whole refers to completeness.	The whole day turned sour when I fell in the hole .

Your Turn Review the words on these two pages and choose three pairs that you have trouble keeping straight. For each word pair, write a sentence or two, using the words correctly.

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Imply, infer: Imply means “suggest”; infer means “deduce.”	Writers imply . Readers infer.
It’s, its: It’s is the contraction for “it is” or “it has”; its is a possessive pronoun.	It’s possible that you can replace its missing case.
Lay, lie: Lay means “put” or “place” and is transitive (it must have a direct object). Its past tense is laid . Lie means “recline” or to “speak falsely” and is intransitive (it cannot have a direct object). Its past tense is lay (that’s where the confusion comes in).	Since you don’t feel well, just lay your cards on the table and go lie down.
Plain, plane: Plain is a noun meaning “an area of level, treeless ground,” or an adjective meaning “ordinary” or “easily understood.” Plane is a noun meaning “a flat surface,” “a tool for making something smooth,” or “an airplane.” Plane is also an adjective meaning “level.”	The plain truth is that this plane cannot land on just any plain .
Principal, principle: Principal is a noun meaning “highest-ranking person” or “invested money.” Principal is also an adjective meaning “primary.” The noun principle means “guiding rule.”	The principal of the school promotes the principle of respect.
Real, very, really: Real is usually an adjective meaning “authentic.” It should not be used in place of the adverbs very or really .	These monetary gains are real , which is really encouraging.
Than, then: Than is a conjunction that creates a comparison; then is usually an adverb referring to time.	I showed that I was taller than my brother. Then he slugged me.
To, too, two: To is a preposition that indicates direction and is also the word used to form an infinitive. Too is an adverb that means “excessively.” Two is the number 2.	We went to the upscale market to buy two zucchinis, though they were too expensive.
Who’s, whose: Who’s is the contraction of “who is” or “who has.” Whose is a possessive pronoun.	Who’s in charge here? Whose mess is that?
You’re, your: You’re is the contraction of “you are.” Your is a possessive pronoun.	You’re telling me that’s your mess?

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Mechanics Rules

Capitalize proper nouns: names of people, organizations, languages, religions, ethnic groups, months, days, trade names, geographical names, etc.	Thursday Asia Jennie Congress Jupiter
In a title, capitalize first, last, and important middle words (not articles, coordinating conjunctions, short prepositions, or to in an infinitive).	Heart of Darkness Of Mice and Men Into the Woods
Form plurals correctly. Add s to most words; es to words ending in ch, s, sh, x, or z ; and s or es to the most important word in compounds. Watch for irregular plurals (child—children; medium—media).	tacks buildings foxes mothers-in-law switches
Use words for numbers under 10. Usually use numerals for numbers 10 and over. Combine numerals and words for very large numbers.	one seven 19 12 million 35 (thirty-five)
Apply the silent e rule. Keep the final silent e when adding a suffix that begins with a consonant. Drop the e when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel.	careful caring valueless valuable

Agreement Rules

Subjects and verbs must agree in number. Singular subjects take singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs.	The stock car zooms down the track. The stock cars zoom down the track.
Compound subjects joined by and are plural. Two or more subjects joined by and take a plural verb.	Teri and Lisa work hard. A file and notes are ready.
Some compound subjects are joined by or . Match the verb to the last subject.	The assistants or Lisa writes the report.

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in person, number, and gender.

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Sentence Rules

A sentence needs a subject and a predicate. The subject is a noun, pronoun, or word group that functions as a noun. The predicate includes the verb and tells what the subject is doing or being.	Subject / Predicate Cats play . To play is the cat’s favorite activity . Whoever wants to see a funny sight should watch my cat play .
A command has an implied subject, the pronoun you .	(You) Hand in your assignment. (You) Include your name, please.
Questions and other constructions have inverted structure. This means that the subject comes after the verb.	Verb / Subject Are you participating ? ( You are participating .) Where is my equipment ? (My equipment is where.) There are three reasons for my decision. (Three reasons . . . are there.)
A sentence must express a complete thought. Subordinate clauses and relative clauses have subjects and verbs, but they do not express complete thoughts. They must be joined to independent clauses to make complete sentences.	Subordinate clause: After we clean Complete sentence: After we clean, we’ll decorate. Relative clause: Who are strong Complete sentence: We need helpers who are strong to move the furniture.
Compound sentences combine two independent clauses. The clauses are joined with a semicolon or a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) , and a comma is used before the conjunction.	You can play the piano , and I will play the electric guitar. My amplifier is loud , but you’ve got a heavy hand on that keyboard.
Complex sentences combine an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses (subordinate or relative). Subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions (after, because, although) , and relative clauses begin with relative pronouns (who, which, that) .	Although the class hadn’t started, my friend was already working. My friend, who is planning to be a teacher, is an excellent tutor.

Your Turn Write two simple sentences (rule 1). Combine them into a compound sentence (rule 5). Change one independent clause into a subordinate clause and create a complex sentence (rule 6).

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Sentence Error Rules

Fix sentence fragments. Add whatever part the fragment is missing: the subject, the predicate, or both. If the fragment has a subject and predicate but does not express a complete thought, join the fragment to a complete sentence.	Needs subject: is hot ⤷ The day is hot. Needs predicate: All of us ⤷ All of us want to go swimming . Needs both: in the afternoon ⤷ We will swim in the afternoon. Not compete: When we swim ⤷ When we swim, we use sunscreen .
Avoid comma splices. A comma splice combines two sentences with only a comma. To correct this error, add a coordinating conjunction after the comma, change the comma to a semicolon, or separate the independent clauses into two sentences.	Incorrect: Information rules our lives, we can’t live without it. Information rules our lives , and we can’t live without it. (conjunction added) Information rules our lives ; we can’t live without it. (semicolon added) Information rules our lives . We can’t live without it. (two sentences)
Correct run-on sentences. A run-on sentence combines two sentences without any punctuation or conjunction. (See rule 2 above.)	Incorrect: Information rules our lives we can’t live without it. Information rules our lives because we can’t live without it. (conjunction added)
Split up rambling sentences. Rambling sentences include too many related ideas in a long sentence. Remove unimportant information and split the remaining pieces into individual sentences.	Rambling: The Constitution guaranteed that all men are created equal but really meant only that white, landowning, adult males were created equal, which excluded all women and all people of color, which is totally unfair and something that had to be addressed through amendments to the Constitution over two hundred years to extend equality and its rights to all people. Corrected: The Constitution guaranteed that all men are created equal but really only meant white, landowning, adult males. Two hundred years of amendments to the Constitution finally extended equality and its rights to all people, including women and people of color.
Use parallel constructions. Connect items of similar structure when using coordinating conjunctions—all nouns, all adjectives, all phrases, all clauses.